Archer North notes that the history of performance appraisal is quite brief; its roots in the early 20th century can be traced to Taylor's pioneering Time and ......... studies.

As a distinct and formal management procedure used in the evaluation of work performance, appraisal really ......... from the time of the Second World War — not more than 60 years ago.

Yet in a broader sense, the practice of appraisal is a very ancient art; in the scale of things historical, it might well ......... claim to being the world's second oldest profession!

There is, says Dulewicz (1989), "a basic human tendency to make judgements about those one is working with, as well as about oneself" — appraisal, it seems, is both ......... and universal.

In the absence of a carefully structured system of appraisal, people will tend to judge the work performance of others, including subordinates, naturally, informally and ..........

The human ......... to judge can create serious motivational, ethical and legal problems in the workplace.

Performance appraisal systems began as simple methods of income ..........

The process was firmly linked to material outcomes: if an employee's performance was found to be less than ideal, a ......... in pay would follow.

On the other hand, if their performance was better than the supervisor expected, a pay rise was in ..........

Pay rates were important, but they were not the only element that had an impact on employee performance; it was found that other issues, such as ......... and self-esteem, could also have a major influence.